カンボジアの歴史 - Cambodia History
カンボジアの歴史
古代またはプレアンコール期
地域の早期人間の職業上の知識の基本的な状態の光では、「歴史的な期間は、「従来、七世紀の初めと見られています。地域初の残りの書かれた文書がそうであるようにアンコール遺跡への直接の前駆体である最初の知られている構造は、この時点から遡ります。
また、中国の使者、TcheouのTa-Kouanは、13世紀の近くにある古代の期間の終わりに向かって領域に彼の旅行の記録に古代カンボジアで非常に貴重な資料を残しました。
したがって、我々は、古代クメール光材料(木材、竹、葉、葦など)民間住宅の建設のため、さらには宮殿を使用したことを今知っている:今日は、古代都市の骨格だけだった石の構造は、我々が最も明確に参照してください。複合体。全国の村は今日のように初期の歴史的時代の考古学的痕跡はほとんど同じように、寺院の構造を中心としたコミュニティの存在を示します。また、碑銘、芸術的証拠は、サイトの仏教とバラモンカルトの共存を示唆しています。地域シェムリアップでは、既知のプレアンコール遺跡は、西バライの周りとロリュオス遺跡/ Damdek.Inこの2つの領域の領域で主にグループ化され、アンコール文明の構造要素の多くは、その胚の形で見ることができます。それを支える建築、アートとの碑文と宗教的崇拝を中心に、基本的な社会文化的構造のプレアンコール期に開発を追跡することが可能です。この組織化原理の文脈では、質量都市開発の始まりは、バンテアイChoeuの少なくとも西部の街を囲む矩形堀で、確立されています。一方、碑銘レコードはクメールandSanskrit碑文の共存によってマークされています。これらは、アンコールとして知られるように来ていた文明を発表先駆者の一部です。九世紀にわたり、この文明の基礎が漸進的に併合されました。
アンコール期間:帝国の誕生それはその文化の先例から著しく発散するように、この開発文明の特異性は、碑銘建築、そして芸術的証拠によって示さもたらされます。根本的な変化は、この期間の初めにクメール彫刻で明らかです。優雅に傾いた腰と腰とそれ以前の人間と神図とは対照的に、新しい数字が急激まっすぐ立っています。伍長屈曲におけるニュアンスの損失が最も明確に目に当たります。
これらの言語と芸術の要素は、しかし、九世紀にクメールの歴史の中で流域を証明するだけでは機能しません。彼らは、特異な政治イベントの症状むしろ、次のとおりです。年間802におけるジャヤヴァルマンIIのパワーに上昇は、このイベントは、今後何世紀にもわたってクメールメモリに、もっと重要なのは現代の歴史家の目にはない、単に政治的転換点をマークしたが、 。
8世紀の最後の年以上の土地を横切って彼のキャンペーンでは、ジャヤヴァルマンIIは次第に異種とライバル公国を統一します。彼の長い軌道は、特定のリンガの崇拝に基づいて、王室の教団の設立で絶頂に達しました。この魔法のカルトは、国の独立と王位への単一の君主の独占的な権利を確保するためのものでした。ジャヤヴァルマンIIは個人的にすることを宣言しないで、プノン・クーレンの上にカルトを制定し、「カンボジアの国はもはやJavaのに依存しています。」名前のリンガ、「kamratenジャガットtaのラジャは、「「王の神は、「王国のパラジウムになることでした。それぞれの連続したアンコールの首都に設置、リンガはジャヤヴァルマンIIとその後の定規の際マジコ - 宗教的な正当性を付与しました。これは普遍的君主または「転輪聖王」の概念が最初にカンボジアに策定したこのカルトを介していました。この王の下では、中央の王権は、このように特異的であるが、多様な宗教儀式の助けを借りて統一カンボジアに統合し、強化されました。
ほぼ30年アンコールの創設者の死の後に王位に上昇し、Indravarmanは宗教とロイヤリティの間の密接な関連性を改めて表明しました。
彼の祖先の記憶に彼の最初の宗教建設(プレア・コー)を専用であり、ジャヤヴァルマンIIのものと特に、この王は、さらに歴史的な用語で彼の正当性を連結しました。生活カルトを維持しながら、同時に神の世界で王室の祖先の死後の滞在を確保するためのものだった、系図の正当性に君臨する君主の主張は、そのような神殿の奉献に具体的な形を与えます。
「山寺」:これだけ先祖の寺院を建立した後Indravarmanは彼自身の教団への印象的な寺院を捧げました。 Bakong、中央聖域によって戴冠5段ピラミッドからなるこの寺として今日知られており、多数の衛星聖域と建造物に囲まれ、ここでその最初の真の雄大な表現を見つけました。
以前のクメールMO-DELSで明らか根、九世紀の寺院の装飾や、Bakongの場合には、建築設計自体にもかかわらず、同時にプレアンコール当目立たジャワの影響を示唆していることに留意することが重要です。プリア・コーのスタッコに刻まれた顕著しかめ面の数値は、例えば、芸術的観点でアンコール文明は、Javaから完全な自治を確立するためにまだ持っていたことを示唆しています。
プレアンコール美的フォームから発散はジャワモデルへの参照からその初期力の一部を描いたように思われます。時間をかけて芸術的自立の段階的な肯定は、しかし、ジャヤヴァルマンIIで儀式的な用語で宣言され、制定された政治的独立を強化し、統合するために来ます。実際、アンコール期間にわたって、技術の偉大な文体の進化が識別することができます。
プレアンコール美的フォームから発散はジャワモデルへの参照からその初期力の一部を描いたように思われます。時間をかけて芸術的自立の段階的な肯定は、しかし、ジャヤヴァルマンIIで儀式的な用語で宣言され、制定された政治的独立を強化し、統合するために来ます。実際、アンコール期間にわたって、技術の偉大な文体の進化が識別することができます。
王国の利益のために自然の水源を利用するための単純だが効果的な技術を開発し、Indravarmanは、支持と君主制の発生期の政治的、宗教団体がサポートしている市民インフラの具体的な実現のための基盤を築くことでした。 Indravarmanの元本およびこのドメインの永続的な貢献は800メートルによって3.8キロを測定する水が大きな貯水池を養うためにロリュオス遺跡川からキャプチャされたシステム、バライ)の創設でした。
重力の影響で自然に流れる、水がプリア・コーとBakongを囲む堀にバライから南に運ばれました。侵入者から囲まれた寺院の複合体を保護することに加えて、これらの堀は、同心円「海」は中央の周囲に「大陸を、「偉大な象徴的な意義を産んまたは山寺院の場合には、神聖なMountMeru自身を囲みます。堀は広大な水文学、ネットワーク内の最初の要素になったように、この象徴的な役割を確実に強化されました。
さらに今後何世紀にもわたって開発され、完成、Indravarmanの革新が急速に統合、上昇、および帝国の耐久性にエッセンシャルました。これらの最初の要素から、農業都市の特定のタイプは、水利用の高度なシステムに基づいて、開発することであった、ととして知られている「油圧都市。」
この新しい場所に資本を転送する前に、しかし、Yasovarmanは彼の先祖(ロレイ)のメモリに寺を建てました。プノンバケン:さらに父親の象徴と物理的なジェスチャーを繰り返し、Yasovarmanは、次の彼の個人的なカルトのために山寺を建てました。
次の5世紀の間に、23年の休憩、農業都市の建設を監督同じ組織の要素を除外。実際、コ・ケーで、インストール後にアンコール地域への資本のリターンは、この地理的な選択肢の実行可能性を示しています。
アンコール期間:クラシックAgeOver 10世紀のコースは、裁判所の輝きは、プレーン全体の裁判所の高官によって設立された多数の寺院によって示唆されています。プラサット・クラヴァンとバンテアイ・スレイは、これらの最も顕著なの一つです。
これは、カンボジアの最初の知られて神秘的な歴史が表示され、10世紀にあります。バクセイ・チャムクロンでのサンスクリット語の碑文は、クメールのレースはKamvu、自己生まれの禁欲主義者、およびメラ、原始アプサラ、または女性の神性の結婚によって設立された方法を詳述します。これは、半神の起源に憶測を鼓舞、文明の団結がすでに十分に確立されたことを示唆しています。
国内の平和はJayaviravarmanのパワーに上昇に伴って初期の11世紀に中断するだけでなく、将来のSuryavarman私は(おそらく限り9年などのために)君臨王に対して戦争を行ったときました。もう一度、アンコールシステムの継続的な進化有効性、および名声は、明らかにされています。勝利の強奪者は、新しい宮殿を創設することによって彼の力を主張することを選択しませんでした。その代わりに、王位への彼の昇天の日付を改ざんし、同意する裁判所の職員を義務付ける、忠誠の厳粛な誓いの宣言と、新しい支配者は非常に同じ王室のサイトで彼の裁判所を設立しました。この特定の地理的な選択は、アンコールの継続に文字通り彼を配置し、象徴母系を通じて正当性への彼の主張を支持しました。
確かに、それは「アンコール」の概念は全体の文明の大きな寸法を取るために、独自の空間的限界を超えて彼の治世で間違いなくあります。この王は2.1キロによって8を測定する、これまでの最大のバライの建設を開始することにより、アンコールの平原に耕作地の面積を拡大しました。確かに、それは「アンコール」の概念は全体の文明の大きな寸法を取るために、独自の空間的限界を超えて彼の治世で間違いなくあります。この王は2.1キロによって8を測定する、これまでの最大のバライの建設を開始することにより、アンコールの平原に耕作地の面積を拡大しました。近くと遠くの地方の寺院を創設、Suryavarman私の両方が存在しない地域社会の上に中央電力を主張し、影響力の新しい球を作成しました。
以下の治世の技術では、1050年に王位に上がった人Udayadityavarman IIのそれは、いつもの神話の場面に一定の自己expression.In添加の自由と花や動物を可能にする、文明の統合を反映するように思われますまぐさとペディメントの装飾、寺院の壁は自然によると彫刻動物や人物像をフレーミング小さなパネルが飾られています。前の寺院のレリーフに見たことがない動物は初めてここに表示されます:ヤギ、孔雀、虎、鹿。この発現のオリジナリティはバプーオンで、西バライの島にUdayadityavarmanによって建てられた西洋Mebonの寺院の複合体で見ることができます。
11世紀の終わりに向かってジャヤヴァルマンVIは、適切なアンコールの領域を越え、いくつかの寺院を正立、Suryavarmanのステップに続きました。アンコールワット:その建築と装飾ではこれらの構造は、1113年に権力を握った次の偉大な王、スーリヤヴァルマン2世によって建てられ、山、寺で具体顕著な業績を予想します。この寺院の建設理由は、その規模の大きさだけでなく、その建築や芸術的完成度の、確かに驚異的な手段と極めて高度な技術が必要とされてきました。
12世紀の半ばた後、Dharanindravarman IIはアンコールを支配する最初の仏教の王であったと考えられています。彼の治世は、その中で注目すべきであるいくつかの30年後に彼の息子、ジャヤーヴァルマン7世は、帝国の公式の宗教として仏教を提起することでした。 1177年にチャムに落下、資本金が事実上破壊されました:しかし、父と息子の治世の間のインターバルの間に、アンコールは - - 首都と文明の両方として取り返しのつかない損害であると証明するもの苦しむことでした。アンコール都市ネットワークは、そのすべての複雑な次元で、すぐに停止に来ました。
資本の秋は間違いなくバラモンの宗教との親密な関係で、おそらく最も具体的には、問題にシステムの有効性と耐久性をもたらしました。
それは確かに埋め立て帝国の国教としてChams、新しい王、ジャヤーヴァルマン7世、確立された大乗仏教の勝利を運んで、その1181年に、まさにこの理由のためであってもよいです。ジャヤーヴァルマン7世のモニュメントのそれぞれは、思いやりの救世主Lokesvaraに信仰を表明しました。
これらの寺院の図像は、彼の癒しの力で知られ、Lokesvaraに優位性を与えます。この宗教的な係合はあっても、そのような王国の主要道路に沿って病院やレストハウスのような多数の社会事業の建設を決定付け。特定の宗教的な構造は、さらに3 DIMEN-sional空間にこの信仰の表現を翻訳します。ニャック・ポアンは、例えば、単に宗教的崇拝の場所が、同時に、治癒スパのようなものではなかったです。
新しいと調和のとれた社会環境を作成するために、自然と人工の機能を最大限に利用し、彼の前任者の行に続いて、ジャヤーヴァルマン7世はまさに革新的な都市計画を証明しました。すぐに王位に昇天した後に、この最後の偉大アンコール王が首都のレイアウトを再設計し始めました。残りの宗教と都市構造を利用して、合理的に考えられて新しい構造を持つこの存在枠組みを補完し、ジャヤーヴァルマン7世が戻って作業順序に荒廃都市を入れます。すぐ北バケンの二つの大きなbaraysとの間の戦略的な場所を選択する、王が印象的なラテライト壁と外堀で、王宮とバプーオンなど、アンコールトムとして今日知られている大面積、外接しました。
街の中心にはバイヨン、ジャヤヴァルマンVIIの山寺院は立っています。塔は、理論的に五十から四、インドの伝統のシンボル数、膨大4の顔を頭の形の各基本的な方向で外に穏やか探しに番号を付けると、バイヨンは議論の余地なく専用の宗教的な複合体のこの伝統的なタイプのアンコールで最もユニークな表現であります王室のカルトへ。中央の山のピボットとしてバイヨンで、アンコールトムの全体は、3次元で神と悪魔の間の戦争のcosmogonic綱引きでミルクの海のかき回すのインドの創世神話を示しています。アンコール期間を通じて多様な芸術の形でに証明、永遠の再生のこの神話は、ここでその最も具体的かつ劇的な表現を見つけました。
彼の個人的なカルトのためのバイヨンを完了する前に、ジャヤーヴァルマン7世は父に捧げプリヤ・カーンが続き、彼の母親のメモリにタプローム寺院を奉献しました。彼はさらにその中心に新バライ、ニャック・ポアンとJayatatakaを構築しました。 waterworkのもう一つのタイプは、ジャヤーヴァルマン7世の治世中に増殖した:ストリームまたは運河にまたがるように並んで配置狭い屋根付きの水通路のシリーズからなる石の構造は、それがブリッジとして変数ダムのように一度に役立ちました。これらの比較的小規模な局所的に管理可能上水道の建設、インフラエネルギーの分散を意味していると権限の分権化を奨励するには、記号やアンコール衰退のおそらく原因として多くの人に見られています。ジャヤーヴァルマン7世の治世はまた彫像当重要な技術革新によってマークされています。この時点までのクメール宗教図像の全体の伝統を通して、歴史上の人物は、自分が選んだ神の理想的な特性を負担する彫刻されていました。ジャヤーヴァルマン7世の下で、王と彼の妻の本当の肖像画は初めて彫られています。神LokesvaraはジャヤヴァルマンVIIの画像で自分自身を彫刻したとき彫像、肖像画の革新をさらに一歩とられます。これは、彼らの王室の信者と神々の会合は、ジャヤヴァルマン2世アンコール期間の開始時にクメール君主制の基盤として採用された、政治的、宗教的および審美的な伝統の進化で最高潮に達する段階として見ることができますその論理的限界に取られる:それは今王ではなく、他の方法で回避の形を取る神です。
13世紀の第一四半期では、ジャヤーヴァルマン7世の死の後、輝かしいアンコールルールの400年が残した遺産は13世紀を通じて繁栄のためのフレームワークおよび手段を提供します。 1296年にカンボジアを訪問しTcheouのTa Kouanという名前の中国の使者は、詳細な説明にその態様の多くを記録し、首都の継続的な素晴らしさを賞賛しました。しかし、明らかに活性の欠如は、主にのみ修復または既存の構造にマイナー追加や変更を行うことの連続した君主で、ジャヤーヴァルマン7世によって実現市内に維持した停滞予感決定的decline.The裁判所の期間を反映するために、むしろ思われます。改ざん、およびしばしばlingasに仏の数字をresculpting、ジャヤヴァルマンVIIのShivaistの後継者は、礼拝のバラモンの場所に彼の多くの仏教建造物を形質転換しました。 Lokesvaraの画像は、バラモンの神シヴァを表現するために形質転換しました。これは、前ジャヤーヴァルマン7世の治世に建てバラモン寺院の仏教レリーフも傷つけたことは、この期間中に間違いなくありました。図像の変換はしかし、体系的ではありませんでした。 13世紀は、バラモン教への公式の復帰によって示されたが、すべての証拠は仏教がますますバラモン宗派との共存調和し、通常の集団内に広がっていることを示唆しています。アンコールで最古の既知のフルパーリ語の碑文は、仏教の存在が、より具体的にその上座部信仰のないだけを示し、初期の14世紀に書かれていました。 14世紀の当第1四半期にわたり上座部仏教は決定的に人々のが、君主制のさらにだけでなく、宗教としてバラモン教を交換することでした。文化面では、アンコール帝国は終わりに来ていました。
このとき、第1のタイ王国、スコータイは、すぐ半島の最も輝かしい文明の成果を描画、地域の支配的な力となりました。アンコール帝国と、この初期の仏教王国間の社会・文化交流は宗教に限定されませんでした:それはまた、関係言語的、芸術的、制度的慣行、および電力の変化のバランスに大きく依存し、両方向に機能しました。しかし、一つの王国の上昇は、他の減少に寄与することを最終的にありました。
14世紀の過程でアンコール社会的管理と信念システムの効率が急激に減少しました。アンコールの秋に貢献する理由は、しかし、複雑で相互に依存しています。上座部仏教の採用により、君主制は、それが帝国を構築していたイデオロギー的基盤を失いました。神々はもはや全能ではなかった、とどのような場合には君主制が神の世界に、より弱く結合させました。詳細は何ですか、一般の人々はもはや王室教団の継続を確実にするためにマークされたバラモン階層にまとめて提供していません。記念碑的なアンコール上水道自体の有効性は、バラモンのイデオロギーに励まさ集中的な集団的労働に依存していました。
原因と結果のこの相互作用は、帝国の衰退の主なソースを決定するためにほぐれすることはできませんが、一つの大きな要因は、それにもかかわらず、特異重要です。第十四を通してと15何世紀にますます強力なシャム軍は首都に繰り返し攻撃を繰り広げました。この強烈な新しい圧力で、重いアンコールインフラの維持管理のために必要なイデオロギーと労働の団結力は、次第に解体されました。大規模なシステム障害は、最終的に軍事的敗北を完了するのに貢献しました。最終的なシャム包囲次の1432年にアンコールを残すには、クメールの君主制は意味の内部の一貫性を失っていた農業都市を残しました。アンコールのユニークな文明の衰退は、首都としてのアンコールの放棄による強い象徴的観点で顕著でした。
中期
このイベントの次の数世紀には最高の、政治的、宗教的、言語的・芸術面で明確な歴史的な期間として見ることができるものを構成していました。現代のカンボジアの要素を定義になるようにした一定の技術革新を導入しながら、このtransitio-NAL期間はアンコール過去に強い根を維持し、この古代の遺産は、痕跡の形で識別可能です。
多かれ少なかれ一定の西側にシャムによって侵略および最終的にはベトナムだけでなく、分裂の内部対立、権力の座と国の内部へ後退の一般的な傾向の頻繁な変位を引き起こしました。また、上座部仏教の導入は一度反射され、両方の制度や地理的な面で、中央電力の漸進的な分散を奨励:中期のクメール君主が彼のアンコールの祖先よりも大幅に少ない権限を命じました。
これは、中間の期間はアンコール時代に最も印象的な対照的である記念碑建設の欠如のために間違いなくあります。テンプルのデザインは、このように上座部のイデオロギーと実践で、そして近隣のサイアムにおける先例の同時影響に合わせて考案されました。特に冠婚葬祭時に、人々のハウジング多数の可能なオープンで機能的な空間は、狭いかつ排他的なバラモン内陣の場所を取りました。
唯一のいくつかの作品は、(主に木材によって石のthereplacementの)残っているため、この期間の技術では、比較的知られていません。テーマ別の範囲が大幅に減少したものの、それは今日の残りの部分でのメリット再現に以後た主仏の像を、あったように、1はまだこれらの変化と技術的、美的terms.Inの一致で洗練された芸術、両方の碑銘のソースを見ている中で減少数および中間期間にわたって自然の中で進化します。第十六世紀と17世紀からこの期間日から碑文の大半。上座部信仰内で機能、ミドルクメール碑文はもっぱら奉納されています。敬虔な行為と願いを記録し、彼らは間接的にしか事実上の履歴情報を明らかにしました。
アンコールでは、15世紀の第二四半期に首都として放棄されたが、領域が連続して現代にまで生息してきました。その包囲以下市内のシャムルールは短命だった、まだ交戦シャム軍への領域の近さは、これまで、16世紀の後半を除いて、そこにパワーの実行可能なシートを再インストールするからクメールの君主制を禁止しました。
適切なアンコール領域内の多くのサイトでは、部分的に維持された、他にも上座部信仰の影響を受けて重要性が増加しました。彼の息子と孫が続く王アンチャンは、古代のサイトを再占領時に中東クメール宗教的、芸術的表現は確かに祖先の栄光の遺跡を持つように積んだこの地域では、その高さに達しているように思われます。アンコールモデルによって間違いなくインスピレーションを受け、これらの王たちは存在しない都市インフラ、変換されたカルト宗教を悪用し、同時に国の南にLongvekの資本を維持しつつ、アンコールで元の宗教の基盤を作りました。
ミドルクメール仏教式のアンコールトム内で最も印象的な名残の一つは、バプーオン寺院で見ることができます:ミドルクメール職人が仏入る涅槃の60メートルの画像にバプーオンの西側ファサードの上部を形質転換しました。同様の再構成はバケン、今後アンコールの街だったもので、最初の偉大な記念碑のサイトの山頂で発生しました。中央聖域とその4つの衛星聖域の部分は巨大な座って仏に第十五第16世紀に形質転換しました。
アンコールの仏教教団の威信はアンコールエリア全体は明らかです。プノン・クーレンは、16世紀に巡礼のサイトされていると、例えば、知られています。最初の13世紀に放棄されたようなアンコール・ワット近くプラサートPreiなどの多数の他の部位は、この同じtime.It周りの仏教教団によって生き返らされていることが知られている実際に継続的にカンボジアのほとんどを維持しているアンコールワットの寺院です重要な宗教カルト。
16世紀の終わりでシャムにLongvekの南の首都の秋では、ますます破壊的な内部対立をengendering、アンコールは再び王宮として放棄されることになっていました。それはもはや王宮であった。しかし、アンコール領域はまだ地元住民によって、あるいは仏教の巡礼者のいずれかによって放棄されませんでした。
近代は:AngkorCambodiaの再発見は現代クメール語へのオールドから言語的進化と新しい政治の時代の就任式で、19世紀の初めの周りの新たな歴史的段階に入ったと考えられます。
モニュメントを通して痕跡フォーム、宗教的信条、政治体制、芸術実践と言語自体に耐え文明のように、アンコールは、国はライバルの下にまだあった19世紀の初めにカンボジアとbeyond.Though内の両方の概念の新たなプロセスを経ましたまたはレコンキスタ - - 征服の任意の野望なしシャムとベトナム、現君主、アン・ドゥオンの支配は、国家のグローバルなビジョンを示すために、16世紀にアンチャン以来初めて主権でした。この王は積極的に宗教と文学DEVE-lopmentに参加し、司法コードを改革、国家のインフラを改修し、新しいものを制定しました。一緒に、これらのアクションは、まとまり全体としてカンボジアを再確立するのに役立ちました。
アンコール、またはそれ以上は特にアンコールワットはクメール良心の創立要素となっていました。常にクメール国旗に考え出したアンコールワットの画像は、カンボジアの状態の西ビジョン限りクメールを反映 - ナショナリズムの特定のブランド、および国旗の機関は、自身が主に欧米の遺産であってもよいしながらも。たとえそうであっても、アンコールのクメール概念は、最終的にさらに促進し、クメール過去の欧米の解釈によって形質転換されることになっていました。
これは、アンコールは、現代のグローバルな寸法に取るようになった1850年代にアン・ドゥオンの治世の終わりに向かっていました。アンリMouhot、英国王立地理学会との遠征にフランスの博物学者が公にアンコールの素晴らしさを称賛した最初の西洋人でした。 1863年に公開され、アンコールのMouhotの記述は、この周囲の感覚の世紀以上発足、視聴者に大きな印象を与えた」という発見を。」密接その後ドイツの民族学者、アドルフバスティアンは、インドの建築模型でモニュメントを関連付ける、科学的な観点からアンコールを理解しようとした最初のものです。科学的関心は、アンコールの政治的価値を高めることでした。フランスとサイアムは、同時に進化し、地域の政治状況で電源を統合しようとしました。 1863年、カンボジアの上にフランスの保護は、アンコール地域を含め領土をカバーし、設立されました。しかし4年後、フランス・シャム条約は、シェムリアップの地方リアップ割譲とサイアムにバッタンバン。交換では、この強力な隣人は、その属国としてカンボジア全体に権威の以前の主張を放棄することに合意しました。移動の内部フランス語反対の一定量があったが、交渉が密室を行った、とさえ今日条約の存在がほとんど知られています。
保護領の注意がそれにもかかわらず、ますます、次の数十年にわたりアンコール領域に描かれました。ルイドラポルト、メコン遠征チームのメンバーは、特にアンコールで、クメール遺跡の探査のコマンドに従うました。フランスの美術館での表示のためのクメール彫刻の芸術の輸出にし、研究のためにヨーロッパに碑文の拓本を送信する際に、ドラポルトの使命は、アンコールのヨーロッパの理解をさらに別の位相を発足しました。資格の航海auのCambodge、ドラポルトの主要な出版物は、古都の記述とほぼ専用です。
近代:アンコールの保全の作成
アンコールはエコール・フランセーズD'EXTREME-オリエントの創設の背後にある主な動機は、1899年にあったことを確かに可能性があり、そしてそれは、その最初の監督はサンスクリット語やクメール金石文の専門家であったことは単なる偶然ではありません。 1908年シェムリアップ州はフランスの保護にシャムによって返されたシェムリ後、エコール・フランセーズは、研究の主要な役割を果たしていた保全アンコールを、作成、保存、およびによってアンコールで行わ復旧活動アップ1970年代初頭までエコール。
そのベースにあるアンコール保全事務所では、地理的、歴史的な単位としてアンコールのMA-nagementのためのシステムは、20世紀の過程で開発することでした。しかし、どちらの植民地統治下でも独立した後、これまでアンコールの観光振興の主要な政策がありました。公園は、その並外れた考古学的、歴史的重要性のためではなく、その観光価値のために評価されました。
エコール・フランセーズと他の植民地当局の研究成果を定期的に専門的な聴衆に提示されたが、アンコール文明に関する知識のこの成長体は、実際には、国自体の中に学術的または技術的な訓練プログラムに組み込まれていませんでした。決してフランスの制御下にその年の間に、または実際の後、保全は考古学的研究、保存修復技術や文化遺産管理におけるクメール国民の訓練を引き受けるでした。独立時には、ノー可能考古学担当者とこのように自分自身を見つける、ロイヤルクメール政府はエコール・フランセーズにアンコールの管理を打ち明けるし続けました。これは、考古学の分野でクメール国民の訓練は真剣に開始することであったこと、プノンペンの美術大学が設立された1965年までではなかったです。考古学部門はカンボジア国民にクメール文化遺産に関する管理・研究活動の段階的な移行を確保することを目指し、より大きな国家政策の中心的成分でした。 Khmerizationのこの初期の方針は、しかし、すぐに戦争の猛攻撃で懸濁させました。
近代:行政・社会経済開発を含む他のドメインのためのwarAs、独立には、次の十年の間に失われたので、文化遺産の管理で行われていた任意の進捗状況。
Cambodia History
The Ancient or Pre-Angkorian Period
In light of the rudimentary state of knowledge on early human occupation of the region, the "historical period" is conventionally seen as beginning in the seventh century. The first known constructions that are direct precursors to the Angkor monuments date from this time, as do the region's first remaining written documents.
In addition, a Chinese emissary, Tcheou Ta-Kouan, left invaluable documentation on ancient Cambodia in records of his travels to the region toward the end of the ancient period at the close of the thirteenth century.
Thus, we know now that the ancient Khmers used light materials (wood, bamboo, leaves, reeds, etc.) for the construction of private homes, and even palaces : the stone structures we see most clearly today were only the skeleton of ancient urban complexes. Archaeological vestiges of the early historical period indicate the existence of communities centered around temple structures, in much the same way as villages throughout the country are today. Moreover, epigraphic and artistic evidence suggest the coexistence of Buddhist and Brahmanic cults at the site. In the Siem Reap region, known pre-Angkorian remains are grouped principally around the Western Baray and in the region of Roluos/Damdek.In these two areas, many of the structuring elements of Angkorian civilization can be seen in their embryonic forms. It is possible to trace the development in the pre-Angkorian period of a basic socio-cultural structure centered on religious worship with its supporting architecture, art and inscriptions. In the context of this organizing principle, the beginnings of mass urban development are established, with rectangular moats surrounding at least the western city of Banteay Choeu. Meanwhile, the epigraphic record is marked by the coexistence of Khmer andSanskrit inscriptions. These are some of the forerunners announcing the civilization that was to come to be known as Angkor. Over the ninth century, the foundations of this civilization were progressively consolidated.
In light of the rudimentary state of knowledge on early human occupation of the region, the "historical period" is conventionally seen as beginning in the seventh century. The first known constructions that are direct precursors to the Angkor monuments date from this time, as do the region's first remaining written documents.
In addition, a Chinese emissary, Tcheou Ta-Kouan, left invaluable documentation on ancient Cambodia in records of his travels to the region toward the end of the ancient period at the close of the thirteenth century.
Thus, we know now that the ancient Khmers used light materials (wood, bamboo, leaves, reeds, etc.) for the construction of private homes, and even palaces : the stone structures we see most clearly today were only the skeleton of ancient urban complexes. Archaeological vestiges of the early historical period indicate the existence of communities centered around temple structures, in much the same way as villages throughout the country are today. Moreover, epigraphic and artistic evidence suggest the coexistence of Buddhist and Brahmanic cults at the site. In the Siem Reap region, known pre-Angkorian remains are grouped principally around the Western Baray and in the region of Roluos/Damdek.In these two areas, many of the structuring elements of Angkorian civilization can be seen in their embryonic forms. It is possible to trace the development in the pre-Angkorian period of a basic socio-cultural structure centered on religious worship with its supporting architecture, art and inscriptions. In the context of this organizing principle, the beginnings of mass urban development are established, with rectangular moats surrounding at least the western city of Banteay Choeu. Meanwhile, the epigraphic record is marked by the coexistence of Khmer andSanskrit inscriptions. These are some of the forerunners announcing the civilization that was to come to be known as Angkor. Over the ninth century, the foundations of this civilization were progressively consolidated.
The Angkorian Period: The Empire's Birth The specificity of this developing civilization as it diverged noticeably from its cultural antecedents is brought forth by epigraphic, architectural, and artistic evidence. A radical change is evident in Khmer statuary at the beginning of this period. As opposed to earlier human and divine figures with gracefully tilted hips and waist, the new figures stand abruptly straight. The loss of nuance in corporal flexion most clearly strikes the eye.
These linguistic and artistic elements do not however serve alone to prove the ninth century a watershed in Khmer history. They are rather the manifestations of a singular political event: the rise to power of Jayavarman II in the year 802. This event marked a political turning point not simply in the eyes of modern historians, but more importantly, in Khmer memory for centuries to come.
In his campaigns across the land over the final years of the eighth century, Jayavarman II progressively unified disparate and rival principalities. His long trajectory culminated with the establishment of a royal cult based on worship of a specific linga. This magic cult was meant to ensure the independence of the country and the exclusive right of a single monarch to the throne. Jayavarman II personally instituted the cult atop Phnom Kulen, in declaring that "the country of Kampuchea is no longer dependent upon Java." The linga, named "kamraten jagat ta raja," "the god of the king," was to become the palladium of the kingdom. Installed at each successive Angkorian capital, the linga conferred magico-religious legitimacy upon Jayavarman II and subsequent rulers. It was through this cult that the notion of a universal monarch or "cakravartin" was first formulated in Cambodia. Under this king, a central royal power was thus consolidated and reinforced in a united Cambodia with the aid of specific but diverse religious ceremonies.
Rising to the throne almost thirty years after the death of Angkor's founder, Indravarman reiterated the intimate association between religion and royalty.
In dedicating his first religious construction (Preah Kho) to the memory of his ancestors, and in particular to that of Jayavarman II, this king further consolidated his legitimacy in historical terms. Giving concrete form to the reigning monarch's claim to genealogical legitimacy, the consecration of such a temple, while maintaining a living cult, was meant to simultaneously ensure the posthumous sojourn of royal ancestors in the divine worlds.
Only after having erected this ancestor temple did Indravarman dedicate an imposing temple to his own cult : the "mountain-temple". Known today as Bakong, this temple consisting of a five-tiered pyramid crowned by a central sanctuary, and surrounded by numerous satellite sanctuaries and edifices, finds here its first truly majestic ex pression.
It is important to note that despite evident roots in earlier Khmer mo-dels, ninth century temple decor and, in the case of the Bakong, architectural design itself, simultaneously suggest Javanese influences less perceptible in pre-Angkorian art. The remarkable grimacing figures carved in the stucco of Preah Ko, for example, suggest that in artistic terms Angkorian civilization had yet to establish complete autonomy from Java.
Divergence from pre-Angkorian aesthetic forms would seem to have drawn some of its initial force from a reference to Javanese models. The gradual affirmation of artistic independence over time would however come to reinforce and consolidate the political independence declared and enacted in ritualistic terms by Jayavarman II. Indeed, over the course of the Angkorian period, great stylistic evolution in the arts can be discerned.
Divergence from pre-Angkorian aesthetic forms would seem to have drawn some of its initial force from a reference to Javanese models. The gradual affirmation of artistic independence over time would however come to reinforce and consolidate the political independence declared and enacted in ritualistic terms by Jayavarman II. Indeed, over the course of the Angkorian period, great stylistic evolution in the arts can be discerned.
Divergence from pre-Angkorian aesthetic forms would seem to have drawn some of its initial force from a reference to Javanese models. The gradual affirmation of artistic independence over time would however come to reinforce and consolidate the political independence declared and enacted in ritualistic terms by Jayavarman II. Indeed, over the course of the Angkorian period, great stylistic evolution in the arts can be discerned.
Developing simple but efficient techniques for exploiting natural water sources to the benefit of the kingdom, Indravarman was to lay the foundations for the concrete realization of civil infrastructures supporting and supported by the monarchy's nascent political and religious institutions. Indravarman's principal and enduring contribution in this domain was the creation of a system in which water was captured from the Roluos river to feed a large reservoir, the baray) measuring 3.8 kilometers by 800 meters.
Developing simple but efficient techniques for exploiting natural water sources to the benefit of the kingdom, Indravarman was to lay the foundations for the concrete realization of civil infrastructures supporting and supported by the monarchy's nascent political and religious institutions. Indravarman's principal and enduring contribution in this domain was the creation of a system in which water was captured from the Roluos river to feed a large reservoir, the baray) measuring 3.8 kilometers by 800 meters.
Flowing naturally under the influence of gravity, water was channeled southward from the baray into the moats surrounding Preah Ko and the Bakong. In addition to protecting the enclosed temple complexes from intruders, these moats bore great symbolic significance as concentric "oceans" surrounding central "continents," or in the case of mountain-temples, surrounding the sacred MountMeru itself. This symbolic role was surely reinforced as the moats became the first elements in a vast hydrological network.
Further developed and perfected over the coming centuries, Indravarman's innovation was essen-tial to the rapid consolidation, rise, and endurance of the Empire. From these first elements, a specific type of agrarian city was to develop, based upon sophisticated systems of water exploitation, and known as the "hydraulic city."
Before transferring the capital to this new location, however, Yasovarman built a temple to the memory of his ancestors (Lolei). Further repeating the symbolic and physical gestures of his father, Yasovarman next built a mountain-temple for his personal cult: Phnom Bakheng.
During the following five centuries, excepted a 23 years break, the same organizational elements directed construction of an agrarian city. Indeed, the return of the capital to the Angkor region after an installation in Koh Ker, demonstrates the viability of this geographical choice.
The Angkorian Period: The Classical AgeOver the course of the tenth century, the brilliance of the court is suggested by the numerous temples founded by court dignitaries across the plain. Prasat Kravan and Banteay Srei are among the most remarkable of these.
It is in the tenth century that the first known mythical history of Cambodia appears. A Sanskrit inscription at Baksei Chamkrong recounts how the Khmer race was founded by the marriage of Kamvu, a self-born ascetic, and Mera, the primordial Apsara, or female divinity. This suggests that the unity of the civilization was already well established, inspiring speculation into its semi-divine origins.
Domestic peace was interrupted in the early eleventh century with the rise to power of Jayaviravarman, but also when the future Suryavarman I waged war against the reigning king (for perhaps as long as nine years). Once again, the continued evolving efficacy, and the renown, of the Angkorian system is made clear. The victorious usurper did not choose to assert his power by founding a new palace. Instead, falsifying the date of his ascension to the throne, and obliging the court officials to concur, with the proclamation of a solemn oath of loyalty, the new ruler established his court at the very same royal site. This specific geographic choice placed him literally in the continuity of Angkor and symbolically supported his claim to legitimacy through the maternal line.
Indeed, it is undoubtedly with his reign that the notion of "Angkor" exceeded its own spatial limits to take on the larger dimensions of an entire civilization. This king expanded the area of cultivated land on the Angkor plain by beginning construction of the largest baray to date, measuring 8 by 2.1 kilometers. Indeed, it is undoubtedly with his reign that the notion of "Angkor" exceeded its own spatial limits to take on the larger dimensions of an entire civilization. This king expanded the area of cultivated land on the Angkor plain by beginning construction of the largest baray to date, measuring 8 by 2.1 kilometers. Founding temples in near and distant provinces, Suryavarman I both asserted central power over existent communities, and created new spheres of influence.
The art of the following reign, that of Udayadityavarman II who rose to the throne in 1050, would seem to reflect the consolidation of a civilization, allowing for the liberty of a certain self ex pression.In addition to the usual mythological scenes and floral or animal decor of lintels and pediments, temple walls are decorated with small panels framing animal or human figures sculpted according to nature. Animals never before seen in temple reliefs appear here for the first time: goats, peacocks, tigers, deer. This originality of ex pression can be seen at the Baphuon, and at the Western Mebon temple complex built by Udayadityavarman on an island in the Western Baray.
Toward the end of the eleventh century Jayavarman VI continued in Suryavarman's steps, erecting several temples beyond the Angkor region proper. In their architecture and decor these constructions prefigure the remarkable achievements embodied in the mountain-temple built by the next great king, Suryavarman II, who came to power in 1113: Angkor Wat. The construction of this temple, because of its sheer size, as well as its architectural and artistic perfection, has surely required tremendous means and exceedingly sophisticated technique.
After the middle of the twelfth century, Dharanindravarman II is thought to have been the first Buddhist king to rule over Angkor. His reign is notable in that some thirty years later his son, Jayavarman VII, was to institute Buddhism as the official religion of the Empire. However during the interval between the reigns of father and son, Angkor - as both a capital city and a civilization - was to suffer what would prove to be irreparable damage : falling to the Cham in 1177, the capital was virtually destroyed. The Angkorian urban network, in all its complex dimensions, soon came to a standstill.
The fall of the capital undoubtedly brought into question the efficacy and durability of the system, perhaps most specifically in its intimate relationship to the Brahmanic religion.
It may indeed be for this very reason that in 1181, carrying victory over the Chams, the new King, Jayavarman VII, established Mahayana Buddhism as the official religion of the reclaimed Empire. Each of Jayavarman VII's monuments expressed faith in the compassionate savior Lokesvara.
The iconography of these temples gives primacy to Lokesvara, known for his healing powers. This religious engagement even dictated the construction of numerous social works such as hospitals and rest houses along the principal roads of the kingdom. Certain religious constructions moreover translate this ex pression of faith into three dimen-sional space. Neak Pean, for example, was not simply a place of religious worship but simultaneously a sort of curative spa.
The iconography of these temples gives primacy to Lokesvara, known for his healing powers. This religious engagement even dictated the construction of numerous social works such as hospitals and rest houses along the principal roads of the kingdom. Certain religious constructions moreover translate this ex
Following in the line of his predecessors, maximizing the use of natural and manmade features to create a new and harmonious social environment, Jayavarman VII proved a truly innovative urban planner. Immediately after ascension to the throne, this last great Angkorian king began to redesign the layout of the capital. Utilizing the remaining religious and urban structures, and complementing this existent framework with rationally conceived new constructions, Jayavarman VII put the ravaged city back into working order. Choosing a strategic location between the two great barays and just north of the Bakheng, the king circumscribed a large area, known today as Angkor Thom including the Royal Palace and the Baphuon, with an imposing laterite wall and outer moat.
At the city center stands the Bayon, Jayavarman VII's mountain-temple. With towers theoretically numbering fifty-four, a symbolic number in Indian tradition, each in the form of an enormous four-faced head looking serenely out in the cardinal directions, the Bayon is indisputably Angkor's most unique ex pression of this traditional type of religious complex dedicated to the royal cult. With the Bayon as the central mountain pivot, the whole of Angkor Thom illustrates in three dimensions the Indian creation myth of the churning of the sea of milk in a cosmogonic tug of war between gods and demons. Attested to in diverse artistic forms throughout the Angkor period, this myth of eternal regeneration found here its most concrete and dramatic ex pression.
Before completing the Bayon for his personal cult, Jayavarman VII consecrated Ta Prohm temple in memory of his mother, followed by Preah Khan dedicated to his father. He moreover constructed a new baray, the Jayatataka with Neak Pean at its center. Another type of waterwork was to proliferate during the reign of Jayavarman VII: a stone structure consisting of a series of narrow covered water passageways arranged side by side to span a stream or canal, it served at once as a bridge and as a variable dam. The construction of these relatively small-scale and locally manageable waterworks, implying a dispersion of infrastructural energies and encouraging a decentralization of authority, is seen by many as a sign and perhaps cause of Angkorian decline. The reign of Jayavarman VII is also marked by an important innovation in statuary art. Throughout the entire tradition of Khmer religious iconography up to this point, historical figures had been sculpted to bear the ideal traits of their chosen god; under Jayavarman VII, true portraits of the king and his wife are sculpted for the first time. The innovation of the statue-portrait is taken one step further when the god Lokesvara is himself sculpted in the image of Jayavarman VII. This can be seen as the culminating stage in the evolution of a political, religious and aesthetic tradition in which the association of the gods with their royal followers, adopted as the cornerstone of the Khmer monarchy at the inception of the Angkorian period by Jayavarman II, is taken to its logical limit: it is now the god who takes on the form of the king and not the other way around.
In the first quarter of the thirteenth century, after the death of Jayavarman VII, the heritage left by four hundred years of glorious Angkorian rule provided the framework and means for prosperity throughout the thirteenth century. A Chinese emissary named Tcheou Ta Kouan, visiting Cambodia in 1296 lauded the continued splendor of the capital city, recording many of its aspects in detailed descriptions. Yet the lack of evident activity would seem rather to reflect a period of stagnation foreboding definitive decline.The court was maintained within the city realized by Jayavarman VII, with successive monarchs largely only repairing or making minor additions and modifications to existent structures. Defacing, and often resculpting Buddha figures into lingas, Jayavarman VII's Shivaist successors transformed his many Buddhist monuments into Brahmanic places of worship. Images of Lokesvara were transformed to represent the Brahmanic god Shiva. It was undoubtedly during this period that Buddhist reliefs of Brahmanic temples built prior to the reign of Jayavarman VII were also disfigured. Iconographic transformation was not however systematic. While the thirteenth century was marked by an official return to Brahmanism, all evidence suggests that Buddhism increasingly spread within the ordinary population, harmoniously co-existing with Brahmanic sects. The earliest known full Pali inscription at Angkor was written in the early fourteenth century, indicating not only the existence of Buddhism, but more specifically that of the Theravada faith. Over this first quarter of the fourteenth century Theravada Buddhism was to definitively replace Brahmanism as the religion not only of the people but moreover of the monarchy. In cultural terms, the Angkorian Empire was coming to an end.
At this time, the first Thai kingdom, Sukhothai, soon became the dominant force in the region, drawing on the achievements of the peninsula's most brilliant civilization. Socio-cultural exchange between the Angkorian Empire and this nascent Buddhist kingdom was not limited to religion : it also involved linguistic, artistic and institutional practices, and functioned in both directions, depending largely on the changing balance of power. But the rise of the one kingdom was eventually to contribute to the decline of the other.
Over the course of the fourteenth century the efficiency of the Angkorian social management and belief systems rapidly diminished. Reasons contributing to the fall of Angkor are however complex and interdependent. With the adoption of Theravada Buddhism, the monarchy lost the ideological base on which it had constructed the Empire. The gods were no longer omnipotent, and in any case the monarchy was linked more weakly to the divine world. What is more, the common people no longer served collectively in the marked Brahmanic hierarchy to ensure the continuation of the royal cult. The efficacy of the monumental Angkorian waterworks itself depended on the intensive collective labor encouraged by Brahmanic ideology.
While this interplay of cause and effect can not be disentangled to determine a primary source of the Empire's decline, one major factor is nevertheless of singular importance. Throughout the fourteenth and into the fifteenth centuries the increasingly powerful Siamese army waged repeated attacks on the capital city. With this intense new pressure, the united forces of ideology and labor, necessary for the maintenance of the ponderous Angkorian infrastructure, were progressively dismantled. Large-scale system failure ultimately contributed to complete military defeat. In leaving Angkor in 1432 following the final Siamese siege, the Khmer monarchy left behind an agrarian city which had lost its internal coherence of meaning. The waning of the unique civilization of Angkor was marked in strong symbolic terms by the abandonment of Angkor as a capital city.
The Middle Period
The several centuries following this event constituted what can best be seen as a distinct historical period in political, religious, linguistic and artistic terms. While introducing certain innovations that were to become defining elements of modern Cambodia, this transitio-nal period maintained strong roots in the Angkorian past, and this ancient heritage is discernible in vestigial forms.
More or less constant aggression by the Siamese to the west and eventually the Vietnamese,as well as divisive internal conflict, provoked frequent displacements of the seat of power and a general trend of retreat into the interior of the country. Moreover, the introduction of Theravada Buddhism at once reflected and encouraged a progressive dispersion of central power in both institutional and geographical terms : the Khmer monarch of the middle period commanded significantly less authority than his Angkorian ancestors.
It is undoubtedly for its lack of monumental construction that the middle period stands in most striking contrast to Angkorian times. Temple design was thus conceived in conformity with the ideology and practices of Theravada, and with the concurrent influence of precedents in neighboring Siam. An open and functional space capable of housing large numbers of people, especially during ceremonial occasions, took the place of the narrow and exclusive Brahmanic cella.
The art of this period is relatively unknown, since only a few pieces remain (mainly because of thereplacement of stone by wood ). Although thematic range was greatly reduced, as it was primarily the Buddha's image which was henceforth to merit reproduction, in the pieces remaining today, one sees an art still refined in technical and aesthetic terms.In concordance with these changes, epigraphic sources both diminish in number and evolve in nature over the middle period. The vast majority of inscriptions from this period date from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Functioning within the Theravada faith, Middle Khmer inscriptions are exclusively votive. Recording pious acts and wishes, they reveal factual historical information only indirectly.
Although Angkor was abandoned as a capital city in the second quarter of the fifteenth century, the region has been continuously inhabited up to modern times. Siamese rule over the city following its siege was ephemeral, yet the proximity of the region to belligerent Siamese armies prohibited the Khmer monarchy from ever reinstalling a viable seat of power there, with the exception of the second half of the sixteenth century.
Many sites within the Angkor region proper were partially maintained, and others even grew in importance under the influence of the Theravada faith. Middle Khmer religious and artistic ex pression would indeed seem to have reached its height in this region so laden with remains of ancestral glory when King Ang Chan, followed by his son and grandson, reoccupied the ancient site. Inspired undoubtedly by Angkorian models, these kings exploited existent urban infrastructures, transformed religious cults and made original religious foundations at Angkor while simultaneously maintaining the capital of Longvek in the south of the country.
One of the most impressive vestiges within Angkor Thom of middle Khmer Buddhist ex pression can be seen at the Baphuon temple : middle Khmer artisans transformed an upper portion of the Baphuon's western facade into a 60-meter image of the Buddha entering nirvana. Similar reconstruction occurred at the summit of the Bakheng, the site of the first great monument in what was henceforth the city of Angkor. The central sanctuary and portions of its four satellite sanctuaries were transformed between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries into an enormous seated Buddha.
The prestige of Angkor's Buddhist cult is evident throughout the Angkor area. The Phnom Kulen is known, for example, to have been a site of pilgrimage in the sixteenth century. Numerous other sites, such as the Prasat Prei near Angkor Wat which was first abandoned in the thirteenth century, are known to have been reanimated by a Buddhist cult around this same time.It is indeed the temple of Angkor Wat that has continuously maintained Cambodia's most important religious cult.
With the fall of the southern capital of Longvek to the Siamese in the end of the sixteenth century, engendering increasingly destructive internal conflict, Angkor was to be again abandoned as a royal residence. But while it was no longer a royal residence, the Angkor region was still not abandoned either by its local populations or by Buddhist pilgrims.
The Modern Period: The re-discovery of AngkorCambodia is considered to have entered a new historical phase around the beginning of the nineteenth century, with the linguistic evolution from Old to Modern Khmer and the inauguration of a new political era.
As a civilization enduring in vestigial forms through monuments, religious beliefs, political systems, artistic practices and language itself, Angkor underwent a new process of conceptualization both within Cambodia and beyond.Though at the beginning of the nineteenth century the country was still under the rival domination of Siam and Vietnam, the reigning monarch, Ang Duong, without any ambitions of conquest - or reconquest - was the first sovereign since Ang Chan in the sixteenth century to demonstrate a global vision of the nation. This king rehabilitated national infrastructures and instituted new ones, actively participated in religious and literary deve-lopment, and reformed judicial codes. Together, these actions served to reestablish Cambodia as a cohesive whole.
Angkor, or more particularly Angkor Wat had become a founding element of the Khmer conscience. The image of Angkor Wat that has always figured on the Khmer national flag reflects Khmer as much as Western visions of the Cambodian state - even while a certain brand of nationalism, and the institution of the national flag, may themselves be largely a Western heritage. Even so, Khmer conceptualization of Angkor was eventually to be furthered and transformed by Western interpretations of the Khmer past.
It was toward the end of Ang Duong's reign in the 1850s that Angkor came to take on modern global dimensions. Henri Mouhot, a French naturalist on expedition with the British Royal Geographic Society was the first Westerner to publicly acclaim the wonders of Angkor. Published in 1863 , Mouhot's descriptions of Angkor made a great impression on their audience, inaugurating more than a century of sensation surrounding this "discovery." Closely thereafter a German ethnologist, Adolf Bastian, was the first to attempt to understand Angkor from a scientific point of view, associating the monuments with Indian architectural models. Scientific interest was to heighten the political value of Angkor. France and Siam simultaneously sought to consolidate power in the evolving regional political situation. In 1863, the French Protectorate over Cambodia was established, covering a territory that included the Angkor region. However four years later, a French-Siamese treaty ceded the provinces of Siem Reap and Battambang to Siam. In exchange, this powerful neighbor agreed to renounce previous claims of authority over the whole of Cambodia as its vassal state. While there was a certain amount of internal French opposition to the move, the negotiations were carried out behind closed doors, and even today the existence of the treaty is little known.
The attention of the Protectorate was nevertheless increasingly drawn to the Angkor region over the course of the following decades. Louis Delaporte, a member of the Mekong expedition team, was accorded the command of the exploration of Khmer monuments, especially at Angkor. In exporting Khmer statuary art for display in French museums and in sending rubbings of inscriptions to Europe for study, the Delaporte mission inaugurated yet another phase in the European understanding of Angkor. Entitled Voyage au Cambodge, Delaporte's principal publication is largely dedicated to descriptions of the ancient capital.
The Modern Period: The creation of the Angkor Conservation
It is indeed likely that Angkor was a primary motivation behind the founding of the Ecole Française d'Extrême-Orient in 1899, and it is not mere coincidence that its first director was a specialist in Sanskrit and Khmer epigraphy. In 1908, after the province of Siem Reap was returned by the Siamese to the French Protectorate, the Ecole Française created the Conservation d'Angkor, which was to play a major role in the research, conservation, and restoration activities carried out at Angkor by the Ecole up until the early 1970s.
With the Angkor Conservation Office at its base, a system for the ma-nagement of Angkor as a geographic and historical unit was to develop over the course of the twentieth century. However neither under the colonial administration nor after Independence was there ever a major policy of tourist promotion of Angkor. The park was appreciated for its exceptional archaeological and historical importance rather than for its tourist value.
While research findings of the Ecole Française and other colonial authorities were regularly presented to a specialized audience, this growing body of knowledge on the Angkorian civilization was never actually incorporated into academic or technical training programs within the country itself. Never in its years under French control, or indeed after, did the Conservation undertake the training of Khmer nationals in archaeological research, conservation and restoration techniques or cultural heritage management. Upon Independence, finding itself thus with no capable archaeological personnel, the Royal Khmer Government continued to confide the management of Angkor to the Ecole Française. It was not until 1965, when the University of Fine Arts in Phnom Penh was founded, that the training of Khmer nationals in the field of archaeology was to earnestly begin. The Archaeology Department was the central component of a larger national policy aiming to ensure the gradual transfer of management and research activities concerning the Khmer cultural heritage to Cambodian nationals. This nascent policy of Khmerization was however quickly suspended with the onslaught of war.
The Modern Period: The warAs for other domains including administrative and socio-economic development, any progress that had been made in cultural heritage management since Independence was lost over the following decades. The activities of the Conservation were considerably reduced from the early 1970s on. Military presence in the region progressively rendered the archaeological sites inaccessible. As the Park itself fell into the hands of Khmer Rouge and Vietnamese troops, the Conservation shifted its efforts to sites in and south of Siem Reap town. The research, conservation and restoration program that had expanded and reinforced its internal coherency, especially in the 1960s, was dismantled. With the rise of the Khmer Rouge to power in April 1975, all the elements of the living Buddhist cult, were purposely destroyed (religious leaders, Buddhist monasteries, Buddha images, manuscripts, etc.), but the Khmer Rouge had no systematic policy concerning the vast quantities of archaeological material at their disposal. Indifference seems to have been the general rule, and the monuments, as well as objects placed in the Conservation were for the most part simply neglected.
However, while Angkor was physically abandoned, the concept of Angkor as a civilization did figure in Khmer Rouge ideology. The temple of Angkor Wat adorned Democratic Kampuchea's national flag. The national hymn proclaimed Khmer Rouge advances on Angkorian civilization. Cynically denouncing the "slave labor" through which the ancient Empire was built, the Khmer Rouge nonetheless capitalized on Angkor as the hereditary model on which an ideology of personal sacrifice for monumental collective works was based. Nonetheless, the Angkorian heritage did not escape the Khmer Rouge period unscathed. Mines were detonated, for example, at certain post-Angkorian stone Buddha images. Numerous post-Angkorian wooden images from Angkor Wat are known to have been burned for firewood. In comparison to the architectural and artistic heritage, the Angkorian hydrological infrastructure suffered most at the hands of the Khmer Rouge. Massive engineering projects undertaken with forced labor and ostensibly meant to augment irrigation capacities proved counterproductive, disrupting rather than ameliorating the pre-war hydrological system, itself largely based on Angkorian structures. These alterations made to a hydrological network that in centuries of use had proved to be efficient continue to hamper development in Siem Reap today.
Driving out the Khmer Rouge in 1979, Vietnamese troops took over the town of Siem Reap, contributing to the desstruction and looting of Angkor. Occupying troops started with-drawing from the Conservation compound in October of 1980, at which time an Indian delegation visited Angkor to undertake the first archaeologi-cal inspection since the early 1970s. A Khmer conservation team was pro-gressively established in the compound, and by February 1982 Vietnamese military presence in the compound had come to an end. The future
A conjunction of circumstances developing in this period was to put the Angkorian cultural heritage at unprecedented risk. With severe poverty, widespread possession of weapons, and virtually unbridled military rule, as well as continuing insecurity throughout Cambodia, most particularly in Thai border regions harboring Cambodian resistance groups, Khmer objects rapidly became prime targets for an illicit international art trafficking net-work with its regional base in Thailand. Over the course of the 1980s and particularly into the 1990s the illicit traffic became an organized industry within Cambodia itself.
Nevertheless, the political and economic opening of Cambodia in 1989 offered new prospects for the rehabilitation of national infrastructure, and for the adoption of strong measures for cultural protection. Practice of the Buddhist re-ligion was increasingly accepted by the State. Western language study was permitted; foreign investment took hold. Renewed and diverse scientific in-terest in Angkor was to progressively develop. And the Department of Archaeology at the University of Fine Arts in Phnom Penh was reopened in 1989.
However the social, economic and political changes begun in the late '80s simultaneously catalyzed great destruction and loss; cultural, natural and human resources all suffered deeply. Faced with the open market, and before an unknown future, many in positions of power sought to consoli-date personal wealth. In Siem Reap, the illegal art traffic, as well as logging, proved increasingly lucrative.
Faced with rampant looting in the Archaeological Park, the Angkor Conservation Office resorted to removing objects for safekeeping in the compound grounds. Surrounded by barbed wire, its outer walls lined with sandbags, and under twenty-four hour armed guard, the Conservation was still unable to prevent theft. Between 1992 and 1993 the compound was thrice attacked by armed forces. Numerous invaluable pieces were lost. In response to this seemingly uncontrollable violence, the government removed over one hundred remaining pieces to Phnom Penh. With the aid of UNESCO, security measures were reinforced in and around the Conservation compound.
It is however important to note that while threats to the Angkorian heritage increased dramatically during this transitional period, so did pos-sibilities for protective action. In November of 1991 H.R.H. Prince Norodom Sihanouk, in his capacity as President of the pre-election organ known as the Supreme National Council (SNC), signed the instruments of accession to the 1972 Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, thereby completing Cambodia's ratification of the three main existent international instruments for the protection of cultural pro-perty. Cambodia's obligations as State Party to these three international conventions - the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, the 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Cultural Property, and the 1972 World Heritage Convention - required, among other things, the adoption of a wide range of national laws and regulations. Setting conditions concerning the promulgation of legislative measures for the protection of cultural heritage, the provisional inscription in 1992 of the Angkor site on the World Heritage List reiterated these national obliga-tions. In the early 1990s, and with international legal assistance, amend-ments were made in the penal code of the State of Cambodia to introduce sanctions on the destruction, theft and illicit traffic of cultural property to enable existent authorities to immediately address the growing problem.
Sources
Angkor is still in danger, and many threats hang over it. Now, this heritage represents one of the last remaining sources of information for the understanding of the Angkorian past. It is the last link between this sometimes mysterious past, the present, and the future. It is therefore vital to study it, so as to understand and protect this heritage which is a fundamental part of the khmer identity.
The available sources of information, though very scarce, enabled to recreate a large part of the Angkorian past.
- Inscriptions sculpted on the temples stone provided precious information for the dating of the kings' reigns, of religious constructions, and sometimes also for the organisation of the temples for instance. Jayavarman VII remained unknown a long time, and without the inscriptions, he would still be.
- The accounts of foreign ambassadors or travellers at that time are also precious. The well known Chinese Tcheou Ta Kouan was one of a few to describe in detail the daily life of the khmer society under the reign of King Jayavarman VII.
Dating of monuments and structures is also possible thanks to techniques used by archaeologists who analyse ceramics found in the soils, and compare the decoration and statuaries styles. Potteries and fragments are thus essential to the understanding of the Angkorian chronology. Finally, the Bayon and the Baphuon bas reliefs are fantastic tales of the daily life in the Angkor times. It also shows the political events of Jayavarman VII reign, such as the wars. The Angkor Vatbas reliefs are also beautiful illustrations of Suryavarman II reign.
Dating of monuments and structures is also possible thanks to techniques used by archaeologists who analyse ceramics found in the soils, and compare the decoration and statuaries styles. Potteries and fragments are thus essential to the understanding of the Angkorian chronology. Finally, the Bayon and the Baphuon bas reliefs are fantastic tales of the daily life in the Angkor times. It also shows the political events of Jayavarman VII reign, such as the wars. The Angkor Vatbas reliefs are also beautiful illustrations of Suryavarman II reign.
However, all these sources of knowledge and understanding do not give full account of the past, and many questions are left in the dark. Apart from the succession of kings, the main wars, the organisation of the temples' life, the general chronology, many aspects are still unknown.Various research programs aim at discovering this hidden past.
It is worth noting that every archaeological team working in Angkor undertakes thorough research before any restoration works. By revealing unknown aspects of the angkorian past, research partly explains it and leads the way for conservation and restoration, and for the general raise of the knowledge of the public. Research thus makes the link between past, present, and future.
It is worth noting that every archaeological team working in Angkor undertakes thorough research before any restoration works. By revealing unknown aspects of the angkorian past, research partly explains it and leads the way for conservation and restoration, and for the general raise of the knowledge of the public. Research thus makes the link between past, present, and future.
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